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Michael Seth, without whose help on Asia and world the dictionary would have taken much, much longer. Henry Myers, the ancient world and intellectualism Dr. Shah Hanifi, Central Asia and the Middle East Dr. Lee Congdon, eastern Europe and intellectualism Dr. I would also like to thank my colleagues for their assistance in writing entries or for providing consultation on specific fields of study: Dr. Wright Doyle, M.Div., Ph.D., for his assistance on Christianity and Judaism. I W O U L D L I K E T O T H A N K my present and past students for assistance of various kinds with this work, especially Sarah Doyle, my apprentice, as well as Christine Contrada, Alison Thrasher, Andrea Friesen, Allison Abbott, and Jeff Brothers. These supplemental instruments should help students and teachers to flesh out their understanding of world history. The URLs are good as of the publication of this dictionary, but they can change at any time. The same is true for the list of Web sites. The maps are intended for reference along with the entries, and they too are also not intended to be comprehensive. Breaking the categories into smaller units might make some sense, but that process would be endless. However, many entries cross the boundaries. The Topical List of Entries is intended to provide some assistance in locating entries related to a particular region of the world or era. The existence of separate entries is noted within definitions through the use of boldface. Common variant spellings of foreign names are shown in parentheses. Spellings follow the most current usage, and foreign words and names follow modern standards. The content of the definitions has been kept brief and concise to provide fundamental facts rather than encyclopedic information. The entries are truly global in range and chronologically span prehistory to the present day. Entries were selected based on the guidelines and recommendations of organizations and agencies such as the National Council for History Education, the National Center for History in the Schools, the World History Association, the College Board World History Advanced Placement Test, and many state standards for history education. It is not comprehensive (that would be impossible and cumbersome in the attempt) but, rather, includes entries that might be of use to students. The Greenwood Dictionary of World History is for high school and college students. INTRODUCTION TO THE GREENWOOD DICTIONARY OF WORLD HISTORY TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES LIST OF MAPS MAPS THE DICTIONARY Printed in the United States of The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984). Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005020918 ISBN: 5-3 First published in 2006 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. D9.B87 2006 903-dc22 2005020918 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Includes bibliographical references and index. The Greenwood dictionary of world history / John J. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Butt, John J.